Table 1 Summary of included studies divided by cognitive domain with pooled correlation and determination coefficient

Knowledge

k = 13

n = 716

0.51 [0.35; 0.63] p < 0.0001

 Image interpretation

Bell et al. [33], Chung et al. [35], Janjigian et al. [36], Kissin et al. [37], Nielsen et al. [38], Schott et al. [39], Sisley et al. [42], Stolz et al. [41], Woodworth et al. [43]

Different multiple choice and written tests

k = 9

n = 466

0.58 [0.43; 0.70] p < 0.0001

 Technical aspects

Janjigian et al. [31], Nielsen et al. [33], Schott et al. [34], Sisley et al. [44], Stolz et al. [45] Werner et al. [46]

Different multiple choice and written tests

k = 6

n = 309

0.47 [0.20; 0.67] p = 0.0013

 General cognitive ability

Berman et al. [34], Carrigan et al. [44], Shafqat et al. [47]

Kit of Factor Reference Cognitive tests, EXPERTise 2.0 Echocardiography edition, Alice Heim Group Ability Test, Numerical Reasoning Test, Digit Symbol Substitution Test

k = 2

n = 149

0.21 [− 0.09; 0.47] p = 0.1741

Psychomotor ability

 Psychomotor ability

Chapman et al. [45], Dromey et al. [46], Smith et al. [48], Walker et al. [49]

Crawford small parts dexterity test, Dimensionless Squared Jerk, Project image test (ZigZag test), Purdue Pegboard test, Semmes–Weinstein Monofilament Sensory Test

k = 4

n = 120

No correlation reported

Visuospatial ability

k = 8

n = 708

0.39 [0.23; 0.54] p < 0.0001

Visuospatial manipulation

k = 7

n = 668

0.37 [0.17; 0.54] p = 0.0005

 Visualization

Berman et al. [34], Clem et al. [51], Clem et al. [46], Chapman et al. [45]

Kit of Factor Reference Cognitive Tests (spatial orientation and visualization subtests), Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test, Surface Development Test

k = 3

n = 179

0.39 [0.09; 0.63] p = 0.0116

 Mental rotation

Chapman et al. [45], Chuan et al. [52], Duce et al. [53], Frederiksen et al. [54], Hewson et al. [55], Shafqat et al. [47], Miller et al. [56], Walker et al. [49]

Mental Rotation test, Revised Vanderberg and Kruse Mental Rotation Test A

k = 4

n = 489

0.38 [0.0864; 0.61] p = 0.0125

Visuospatial perception

k = 3

n = 156

0.33 [0.14; 0.49] p = 0.0009

 Lower order perception

Smith et al. [48]

Pelli-Robson contrast acuity testing

k = 1

n = 40

No correlation reported

 Closure speed

Chapman et al. [45], Duce et al. [53], Smith et al. [48]

Block Design Test (WAIS-IV), Gestalt Completion Test, Matrix reasoning Test, The Snowy Picture Test, Visual puzzles

k = 2

n = 73

0.43 [0.22; 0.60] p = 0.0002

 Flexibility of closure

Berman et al. [34] Chapman et al. [45], Duce et al. [53], Shafqat et al. [47]

Abstract Reasoning Test, Concealed Figures Test, Group Embedded Figures Test, Kit of Factor Reference Cognitive Tests (flexibility of closure subtest)

k = 2

n = 143

0.14 [− 0.02; 0.30] p = 0.0839

 Visual memory

Carrigan et al. [44]

Novel Object Memory Test

k = 1

n = 39

No correlation reported

 Spatial scanning

Smith et al. [48]

Trail making test (TMT)

k = 1

n = 40

No correlation reported